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At NAMN the de novo pathway converges with the NAD salvage pathway and the last two steps to NAD are shared |CITS: [12972620], [12648681]|. In the yeast NAD salvage pathway, the vitamin precursors nicotinamide and nicotinic acid are converted to NAMN, the point of convergence with the de novo pathway |CITS: [12648681]|. The steps from nicotinic acid to NAD were elucidated by Preiss and Handler and are sometimes referred to as the Preiss-Handler pathway |CITS: [13416279], [13563526]|. Yeast can also import extracellular nicotinic acid into the cell by the permease Tna1p and then convert it into NAD via the Preiss-Handler pathway |CITS: [12648681]|. There are four additional pathways for synthesizing NAD in yeast: two salvage pathways from the vitamin precursor nicotinamide riboside (NR) and two salvage pathways from nicotinic acid riboside (NaR) |CITS: [15137942], [17482543], [17914902]|. Three of these salvage pathways converge first with the NAD salvage pathway and then with the de novo pathway, while the fourth, the NR salvage pathway I, is independent of both of these pathways. In the NR salvage pathway I, NR is phosphorylated to nicotinamide mononucleotide by the kinase Nrk1p, and then adenylated to NAD by Nma1p or Nma2p |CITS: [15137942]|. Bacteria such as Haemophilus influenza that lack the enzymes of the de novo and Preiss-Handler pathway can synthesize NAD from NR and nicotinamide mononucleotide as well |CITS: [15137942]|. Humans also appear to have this NR salvage pathway |CITS: [15137942]|. Yeast have a second NR salvage pathway (NR salvage pathway II) that is independent of Nrk1p; in NR salvage pathway II NR is split into a ribosyl product and nicotinamide, which is subsequently converted to NAD via enzymes of the NAD salvage pathway and de novo pathway |CITS: [17482543]|. 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